Comparing the Similarities and Differences Between...

Anorexia nervosa and Bulimia nervosa are described as psychological eating disorders (Keel and Levitt, 1). They are both characterized by an over evaluation of weight. Despite being primarily eating disorders, the manifestations of bulimia and anorexia are different. They both present a very conspicuous example of dangerous psychological disorders, as according to the South Carolina Department of Health, â€Å"Eating disorders have the highest mortality rate of any mental illness† (Eating Order Statistics, 1). While Bulimia and anorexia both psychological disorders primarily prevalent in women, anorexia tend to have different diagnostic complexities, symptoms and physiological effects as compared to bulimia. Both bulimics and anorexics are†¦show more content†¦There seems to be no single reason for the development of either bulimia or anorexia nervosa. Morris and Twaddle argue that anorexia seems to have no specific cause, that genetic disposition, cultural, transitional and environmental factors all play a role in causing the disorder (894-898) Similar is the case of bulimia as mentioned in by Hay and Bacaltchuk (33). From this, we can deduce that these eating disorders are dangerous because they can arise due to a number of independent reasons. One of the major differences between anorexia and bulimia is that the latter is harder to diagnose. Bulimic patients tend to be secretive and though their weight may be below normal, it is not necessary that they be anorexic. However, anorexic patients tend to be underweight, along with reluctance to eat even small amounts of food, and involving in physical weight-loss exercises obsessively. (Simon, 1) Therefore, it is apparent that incidences of bulimia often remain unnoticed whereas anorexics are more successfully diagnosed. Both anorexia and bulimia are more common to women. In clinical review, Sara and twaddle write: â€Å"It [anorexia] has a prevalence of 0.3% in young women†¦. 80-90% of patients are female†. While 90% of eating disorder patients treated are women (Hay and Bascaltchuk, 33). Therefore, it may be inferred that certain reasons (as discussed above) act as stimuli in womenShow MoreRelatedBeing Thin, Petite, And Attractive Is Driving Young Women776 Words   |  4 Pagesburden on the shoulders of our young people. Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa are two eating disorders that are consuming our youth throughout the country. Thankfully, research has made advances for those affected and giving them to tools to overcome and succeed these overbearing disorders. In the first article, Anorexia Nervosa was studied in a group of women with the mean age of 24. In the study, the women had to write a letter to their anorexia as a friend and then as an enemy. The lettersRead More The Prevalence Of Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, And Binge Eating Disorder1723 Words   |  7 PagesThe Prevalence Of Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, And Binge Eating Disorder How prevalent is anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and other eating disorders? Without the knowledge of research, one is likely to think eating disorders are quite prevalent in society today. However, research proves that eating disorders, in general, are not as prevalent as one might think without any knowledge of the subject. Prevalence of an eating disorder refers to the number of cases of an eating disorderRead MoreMen and Eating Disorders Essay1182 Words   |  5 PagesMen and Eating Disorders About seven million women across the country suffer from eating disorders including anorexia nervosa and bulimia and, as a result most research involving these disorders have only been conducted on females. However, as many as a million men may also suffer from these same disorders. 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The measurement of individual differences is referred to as psychometrics. Individual differences covers a wide range of issues including psychological abnormality which is hard to define. Each major approach has its own explanation of mental disorders. These explanations are applied to eating disorders such as Anorexia NervosaRead MoreEssay Writing9260 Words   |  38 Pagesintroduction. But your introduction serves the same purpose as it would if the reader were coming to it voluntarily. You must convince the reader that your essay is worth reading. The Structure of an Introduction A simple model for the relationship between the introduction, the body, and the conclusion is the old newspaper maxim: You tell em what you re gonna tell em you tell em, and then you tell em what you told em. In an introduction, you lay out a plan for what will follow. HoweverRead MoreMarketing Communications Notes17720 Words   |  71 Pagesmember or friend where they just can’t seem to understand even the most simple language, no matter how many times you repeat yourself? Have you ever attended a lecture and then compared your notes to those of a fellow student only to find major differences? Have you ever tried to have a conversation with a friend on the MTR at 6 p.m. on a Friday night? Have you ever ordered a product over the Internet only to be unpleasantly surprised by the final price, shipping charges or actual product featuresRead MoreOcd - Symptoms, Causes, Treatment131367 Words   |  526 Pagesdeveloped a number of counting and repeating compulsions, as well as extensive avoidance behavior, in an effort to neutralize the obsessions. He believed he had to repeat a task until he no longer had an obsession so that he could break the association between the task and the in trusive thought. This would then ensure that the task would not become a trigger for the obsession. As a result of his erroneous belief, Mike would repeat phrases, retrace his steps, wash repeatedly, even hold his breath, in response

Jonathan Swift s A Modest Proposal, And Thomas More s...

Jonathan Swift’s â€Å"A Modest Proposal,† and Thomas More’s Utopia both treat the poor, old, or sick similarly. Swift writes a mock proposal to eat the children of poor families, while More writes about an â€Å"ideal,† utopian society where the old and sick are told that they might as well just die. Both exaggerate the similarities between humans and animals in order to reveal to the public how they are treating these types of people in real life. The authors’ ideas are pushing how society deals with people to an exaggerated level to reveal what is really happening within the community. Swift and More both make analogies between humans and animal behavior to reveal to society how they are treating the poor like worthless animals. In More’s Utopia, the old and sick people are seen as a burden and should choose to die for everyone’s good. Priests tell these old and sick individuals that they are an annoyance on society. More writes, â €Å" ‘You’re just a nuisance to other people and a burden to yourself’ † (More 665). They live for no one’s good and are left to live a pointless rest of their life, so they might as well just end it now. More is revealing how society really sees the old and sick people. They know they should take care of them, and they do, but no one really wants to help them when it’s taking time away from their own life. People see more use in doing there own thing, so in Utopia, More pushes it to the level of trying to convince the the old and sick that they shouldShow MoreRelatedSir Thomas More And Jonathan Swift Essay1592 Words   |  7 Pagesboth in and out of its populations a kind of distrust. It remains to be seen if there is an ideal empire, but in conceptualizing the shortcomings of an empire s trajectories, there are significant observations to be made. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the sixteenth and eighteenth century writings of Sir Th omas More and Jonathan Swift. Here, individuals for the first time interrogate the governmental systems which predate them to a particular effect, though their means are drastically different

Critical Factors International Development Projects

Question: Discuss about the Critical Factors for International Development Projects. Answer: Introduction: The project management can be referred to as the discipline that initiates, plan, execute, controls and closes the teamwork for achieving the specific goals and for meeting the specific factors of success. As stated by Ahmad and Cuenca (2013), the project is an endeavor, which is designed for producing the unique product, service and in meeting unique goals and objectives. The project management is the overall application of the knowledge, skills, techniques and tools that help in the conduction of the project activities for meeting the requirements of the project. It facilitates in coordination and implementation of the project activities, which helps in creating an environment for fostering interactions among the team members with the minimum amount of conflict, overlaps and disruptions. Alias et al. (2014) stated that in a project management, the requirements are identified along with the establishment of transparent and achievable objectives, which helps in balancing the demands of the various stakeholders. It is a scientific approach that facilitates in creating and managing the structure along with the commitments made to the project. If the managers dont have a concrete plan of the project conduction, they are likely to face chaotic and unpredictable situations while conducting the project. These risks and hindrances are mitigated with the use of project management. According to Bai and Sarkis (2013), the project management is a framework, which helps in providing concise and lucid practices those are to be followed by the team members for the successful accomplishment of a project. By creating a structure as well as managing a project, the commitments, time of completion and the project deliverables are ensured to the customers. The stages of project development and management are the initiation, planning, execution, monitoring, control and closing. This assignment will be discussing the initiation of the project, and it's planning, implementation and execution. Along with this, it also discusses the closedown of a project and the management of multiple projects for their successful accomplishment. Project Initiation The project initiation is the first stage in the life cycle of a project management where it involves in starting up a fresh project. Banihashemi et al. (2017) opined that in the initiation stage, the business problems and opportunities are identified, solutions are defined, projects are formed, and a flexible and talented team is set up for delivering the solutions to the patrons in scheduled time. A business case has been created for detailing and identifying the most appropriate solutions to the problems those are likely to be faced while initializing the project. Several problems and opportunities along with the alternative solutions are made available in the business cases. In this stage, the business costs, risks associated, issues and benefits are analyzed. Along with this, the business requirements of the projects are jotted down in this stage. As mentioned by Chou and Pramudawardhani (2015), a vivid plan, which includes financial and scheduling analysis, are also present in this project initiation. Before initiating a project, the project manager has to prepare a team for the employees and workers those are best in conducting the specified project. The responsibilities are divided equally among the team members as per their positions in the organization and according to their talents, skills and capabilities in handling the responsibilities. Costantino et al. (2015) opined that while initializing the project, the goals are clarified, competencies within the team are justified, and fixations of the time are done so that the different levels of the projects are completed within scheduled time. Before initializing the project, the feasibility of the project is analyzed. It shows the profitability of the project to the organization and the presence of the required resources those available in the organization. The success of the project lies on the experience and success level of the project managers and their team members. Moreover, the success of the project is also dependent on the accuracy and clarity of the project and the talents and skills of the employees. As opined by Drury-Grogan (2014), before beginning a project, the project manager needs to have a clear concept of the customers requirements and that is to be communicated to the team members. It prevents the occurrence of misunderstanding and tiffs between the pr oject staff members and the patrons. Each of the staff members needs to have clear conceptions about the project objectives, and they should also have a mentality to achieve the goals combined as a team work. As mentioned by Dwivedula et al. (2015), there are certain situations where the project fails to accomplish its objectives and providing adequate solutions to the customers. It may be due to the communication gap between the project employees and the customers or among the team members. Moreover, the other reasons for failure can be the inadequate presence of resources; skills and expertise in accomplish the project within scheduled time. With the initiation of the project, certain levels of commitment and dedication are required from the side of the team members. A team needs to make have strong decision-making capabilities like specifying and prioritizing the needs, evaluating and comparing the solutions and selecting the best solutions to the identified project problems (Gonzalez Aleu et al. 2016). Project Planning The second stage in the life cycle of a project is the planning phase. It is a stage, where the project solutions are developed with the usage of every details those are necessary for meeting the objectives of a project. Gudien? et al. (2014) stated that in this phase, the team identifies the work that is to be accomplished along with identifies the availability and usability of the resources. The strategies and an outline of the project are curbed that helps in planning the activities, dependencies, tasks and the time frames. Even more, the project manager also coordinates with the team members and the higher officials in preparing an approximate budget of the project. It contains the different cost estimates to the labor, material costs and the equipment. Moreover, the cost that will be incurred for monitoring and controlling the expenditure of project is also planned in this phase. As opined by Hasler (2016), after the project team identifies the working schedule, preparation of t he schedule and estimating the costs, the planning process are complete. In this phase, the threats and risks those the project are likely to face are identified. It helps in understanding the threshold of the team members of the project and their planning of strategies for the different steps. The risks are segregated as per their importance and extent of causing danger in the completion of the project. In this phase, the project manager documents the extensive planning, quality targets, control measures and makes an acceptance plan regarding the criteria provided by the customers for gaining their acceptance. According to Ihuah et al. (2014), in this phase, the various tasks as per their durations are segregated that helps in completion of the work. A detailed structure about the work breakdown is listed that helps the team members in understanding the prioritization of each of the tasks. A detailed project planning is necessary that helps in identifying and resolving the issues those are remaining and may prove problematic to the team members in accomplishing the goals. The commitment level of the stakeholders is refined and elaborated as per the consideration to the resources. Kerzner (2013) had an opinion that in this phase the documentation of the project plan is done. It helps in documenting and promoting the cooperation, coordination and constructive participation of all the team members. After the plan gets approved, a positive and highly spirited approach is expected from the team members. With the approval of the plan, the participants confront their responsibilities with the qualities, talents and skills that they possess and use at the time of providing subsequent deliverables. Lehman (2016) commented that while breaking down the work, estimated time, costs and resources utilized for each of the activities are also allocated. The project scheduling is optimized that helps in maintaining a balance between the usage of the resources and the duration of completion of each of the activities. The progress will be measured at every step, which will help in understanding whether the project is going in the scheduled direction. In this phase, the requirements of the projects are kept handy among the team members, which help in moving on to the next phase of implementation and execution. A logical dependency between the tasks is defined that helps in enabling the identification of the shortest and effective paths that is to be followed for the successful accomplishment of the project (Lind and Culler, 2013). Implementation and Execution The 3rd step of the project lifecycle is the implementation and executive phase. In this phase, the project plan is executed or put into operation, and the project work is performed. According to Liu et al. (2014), the monitoring and controlling of the project activities are done, and the variances are recorded as per the original plan. It is one of the biggest and time-consuming steps in the project. In this step, the team members carry out the different tasks and the progress of the reports are often compared with the project plan. It is done for measuring the performance of the activities of the project and whether the project is operating correctly and moving in the correct direction. If certain variations between the original plan and practical operation of the project are seen, then a vivid and thorough checking of the plan is done. Ofori (2013) opined that the modifications and changes are published to the existing plan. The project manager is also responsible for checking the controlling limits, which helps in creating awareness of the baseline. The negative ideas circulated among the team members are removed, and the project manager motivates the team members towards success and completion of each of the activities of the project. The PMIS (Project Management Information System) system has been installed in this phase, which helps in executing the project work successfully. As mentioned by Power (2016), it is a typical software application, which helps in methodical execution for collecting the project information. Through PMIS, the time, cost and performance parameters of different stages of the project are communicated to the higher authorizes and among the team members. Moreover, the risk monitoring of each of the activities is also conducted, which also helps in understanding the progression of the project. The performance reporting is done on the periodic basis and is documented for the future requirement in the project. According to Ram and Corkindale (2014), the relationships with the vendors are strengthened in this phase, and the project manager uses the contracts for resolving the issues faced while completing the project. It has been seen that the brainstorming phase has been carried out in this pha se at periodic intervals to resolve any unwanted risks faced due to the dynamic business environment. In situations, when the poor decisions are taken, which are going unmatched with the present business scenario, steps are taken for modifying the changes. It, therefore, results in updating and publishing the plan on a periodic basis (Ram et al. 2013). As stated by Ribeiro de Jesus et al. (2016), the status reports show the anticipating and expecting end points of the project regarding scheduling, quality and cost of the deliverables. These project deliverables are reviewed by the quality and are measured against the criteria of acceptance. After producing these deliverables, the project manager provides the customer with solutions, and this leads to the closure of the project from the project managers side. This step is followed by the closing phase and reviewing of the project, where the customers provide feedback to the team, and they have to modify and alter the changes as per the criteria of the customers (Santos-Vijande and Snchez, 2016). Project Closedown and Review The project closedown and review is the last phase of the project life cycle, which involves dispensing over the deliverables to the respective patrons. The documentation of the business is done followed by releasing of the staff members, canceling the contracts with the suppliers and releasing the staff members from the project. As mentioned by Surlan et al. (2016), in this stage, a project closure report should be prepared. It should contain the activities those are necessary for closing the project along with ensuring the project closure is taken both effectively and smoothly. With the approval of the report, the reviewing and inspection of the project take place for the next one to three months. With the transfer of the deliverable goods, the projects remains under the risk of commercial, reputational, operational, environmental, economic and financial aspects. The period of reviewing and re-modification of the areas of changes are still under the employees requirements. Tafti et al. (2017) had opined that these risks are also combined with the probability of success, insurance and isolation of the activities. While accomplishing the project, the project managers have to take care of the entire environmental issues. It is to be noted that none of the projects should cause hamper to the environment while conducting the activities. According to Tarhini et al. (2015), the quantitative approaches used for analyzing and reviewing the results is through PERT analysis, Monte Carlo Simulation and Sensitivity Analysis. The PERT (Program Evaluation Review Technique) analysis is a project management statistical tool, which is designed for analyzing and representing the tasks those are involved in the successful accomplishment of the project. Through this process, the time required for completion of each of the activities is analyzed and the minimum time required for completing the project is identified through PERT. As stated by Turner (2014), in Monte Carlo Simulation, the same model is used where a random task us selected for each of the tasks and are also responsible for recording the values. With the help of this simulation, viable estimation of the project is done, and it also helps in understanding the risks of the project planning method. The sensitivity analysis in the project management is a study that helps in measuring the uncertainty in the mathematical model and system that can be allocated to the diverse sources. It facilitates identification of the key variables, which majorly influence the benefits and cost of the projects (Verburg et al. 2013). Yamin and Sim (2016) stated that in the evaluation phase, unbiased opinions should be provided to the project team for making them understand their strengths, weaknesses and the benefits of the projects. It also helps them in understanding the objectives those are met with the allocated resources and budget. Any modifications made in the projects should be consulted with the project team. The problems and issues related to the occurrence of the problems are to be discussed. As stated by Yeoh and Popovi? (2016), through evaluation, the achievements, failures and the lessons are learned by the project team for their future reference. It helps them in not repeating the mistakes in future and carries these present mistakes for future references. Before complete closure of the project, the staff members of the project should be reassigned to the project duties till the time of complete satisfaction and review received from the client side. It is done so that if any changes occur, that is to be managed by the employees and the project team (Zou et al. 2014). Managing Multiple Projects and Summary The projects are prioritized as per their importance and timeline. The project managers are responsible for taking the responsibility of the projects that are in-line. According to Gudien? et al. (2014), based on the importance of the projects and the time of completion, the projects are undertaken by the project managers. Before taking each of the projects, the resources are checked by the projects. The experiences of the projects are also used in the future projects, if necessary. The people, time and resources are scheduled as per the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) and according to the task interdependencies. The difference between the projects and sub-projects are clarified, and the team members are provided with ample clarification regarding the aims, objectives of the projects and the terminology variations used in diverse projects. Alias et al. (2014) stated that handling different projects means working in a dynamic environment, which is always changing. The sub-projects and projects have different life cycles of completion, and hence they are to be scheduled in such a way that they dont create confusions and conflicts. The tasks are shared among the team members and based on the unique characteristics; certain activities are given to the specified ones. The joint responsibility and reporting of the multiple tasks are also handled in multiple projects handling situations. Moreover, the project manager is also responsible for updating the schedules at regular intervals (Lind and Culler, 2013). The assignment deals with the overall project management of several businesses of any size. The project managers, entrepreneurs and the executives of the companies oversee the projects for successful completion of the project. The effective techniques are adopted by the organizations for carrying out of the activities of the project within specified time and limited resources. The overall assignment shows that the project manager and the team members should be aware of the entire project work and completion of the activities by following all the steps of completion of the project. The project management skills and timeline are important to follow to keep the project on track. In the initiation stage, the business strengths, opportunities and weaknesses are identified. It is followed by the planning stage where the documentation of the resources is done. The implementation phase is the stage where the planning is put into motion and activities are carried out. In the project closure a nd review stage, the overall deliverables and activities are provided to the customers. Any changes and modifications are effectively handled, which helps in successful completion of the project and also improves the satisfaction level of the customers extensively. References Ahmad, M.M. and Cuenca, R.P., 2013. Critical success factors for ERP implementation in SMEs.Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing,29(3), pp.104-111. Alias, Z., Zawawi, E.M.A., Yusof, K. and Aris, N.M., 2014. Determining critical success factors of project management practice: A conceptual framework.Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,153, pp.61-69. Bai, C. and Sarkis, J., 2013. A grey-based DEMATEL model for evaluating business process management critical success factors.International Journal of Production Economics,146(1), pp.281-292. Banihashemi, S., Hosseini, M.R., Golizadeh, H. and Sankaran, S., 2017. Critical success factors (CSFs) for integration of sustainability into construction project management practices in developing countries.International Journal of Project Management. Chou, J.S. and Pramudawardhani, D., 2015. Cross-country comparisons of key drivers, critical success factors and risk allocation for public-private partnership projects.International Journal of Project Management,33(5), pp.1136-1150. Costantino, F., Di Gravio, G. and Nonino, F., 2015. Project selection in project portfolio management: An artificial neural network model based on critical success factors.International Journal of Project Management,33(8), pp.1744-1754. Drury-Grogan, M.L., 2014. Performance on agile teams: Relating iteration objectives and critical decisions to project management success factors.Information and Software Technology,56(5), pp.506-515. Dwivedula, R., Bredillet, C.N. and Mller, R., 2015. The relation between work motivation and project management success in case of temporary organizations: theoretical lenses. Gonzalez Aleu, F., Gonzalez Aleu, F., Van Aken, E.M. and Van Aken, E.M., 2016. Systematic literature review of critical success factors for continuous improvement projects.International Journal of Lean Six Sigma,7(3), pp.214-232. Gudien?, N., Banaitis, A., Podvezko, V. and Banaitien?, N., 2014. Identification and evaluation of the critical success factors for construction projects in Lithuania: AHP approach.Journal of Civil Engineering and Management,20(3), pp.350-359. Hasler, M.D., 2016.Critical Success Factors Affecting Successful Completion of Institutional Projects: A Case Study Approach(Doctoral dissertation). Ihuah, P.W., Kakulu, I.I. and Eaton, D., 2014. A review of Critical Project Management Success Factors (CPMSF) for sustainable social housing in Nigeria.International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment,3(1), pp.62-71. Kerzner, H., 2013.Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling. John Wiley Sons. Lehman, D.W., 2016.Identifying the Critical Success Factors for Information Systems to Manage Sponsored Research Activities at Institutions of Higher Education(Doctoral dissertation, Robert Morris University). Lind, M.R. and Culler, E., 2013. Information technology project performance: The impact of critical success factors. InPerspectives and Techniques for Improving Information Technology Project Management(pp. 39-50). IGI Global. Liu, J., Love, P.E., Smith, J., Regan, M. and Davis, P.R., 2014. Life cycle critical success factors for public-private partnership infrastructure projects.Journal of Management in Engineering,31(5), p.04014073. Ofori, D.F., 2013. Project management practices and critical success factors-A developing country perspective.International Journal of Business and Management,8(21), p.14. Power, M., 2016. Defining and Managing Risk: A Study Investigating Critical Success Factors Relating to Client Expectation and Associated Risk Management in Design and Construct Projects. Ram, J. and Corkindale, D., 2014. How critical are the critical success factors (CSFs)? Examining the role of CSFs for ERP.Business Process Management Journal,20(1), pp.151-174. Ram, J., Corkindale, D. and Wu, M.L., 2013. Implementation critical success factors (CSFs) for ERP: Do they contribute to implementation success and post-implementation performance?.International Journal of Production Economics,144(1), pp.157-174. Ribeiro de Jesus, A., Antony, J., Lepikson, H.A. and Peixoto, A.L., 2016. Six Sigma critical success factors in Brazilian industry.International Journal of Quality Reliability Management,33(6), pp.702-723. Santos-Vijande, M.L. and Snchez, J..L., 2016. Interrelationships among critical success factors in service innovation: effects on the new service market performance.The Business Management Review,7(3), p.295. Surlan, N., Cekic, Z. and Torbica, Z., 2016. Use of value management workshops and critical success factors in introducing local experience on the international construction projects.Journal of Civil Engineering and Management,22(8), pp.1021-1031. Tafti, M.M., Tafti, M.M., Mahmoudsalehi, M., Mahmoudsalehi, M., Amiri, M. and Amiri, M., 2017. Critical success factors, challenges and obstacles in talent management.Industrial and Commercial Training,49(1), pp.15-21. Tarhini, A., Ammar, H. and Tarhini, T., 2015. Analysis of the critical success factors for enterprise resource planning implementation from stakeholders perspective: A systematic review.International Business Research,8(4), p.25. Turner, J.R., 2014.The handbook of project-based management(Vol. 92). New York, NY: McGraw-hill. Verburg, R.M., Bosch-Sijtsema, P. and Vartiainen, M., 2013. Getting it done: Critical success factors for project managers in virtual work settings.International journal of project management,31(1), pp.68-79. Yamin, M. and Sim, A.K., 2016. Critical success factors for international development projects in Maldives: Project teams perspective.International Journal of Managing Projects in Business,9(3), pp.481-504. Yeoh, W. and Popovi?, A., 2016. Extending the understanding of critical success factors for implementing business intelligence systems.Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology,67(1), pp.134-147. Zou, W., Kumaraswamy, M., Chung, J. and Wong, J., 2014. Identifying the critical success factors for relationship management in PPP projects.International Journal of Project Management,32(2), pp.265-274.

Seligram Inc. Case Analysis Essay Example

Seligram Inc. Case Analysis Essay At the beginning, the Electronic Testing Operations (ETO) measured two components of cost: direct labor and burden, but the burden is grouped into a single cost pool that includes all costs and divided by direct labor dollars to obtain the burden rate. (Q2) ETO’s manager picked up 5 components to evaluate the impact of different accounting system. The reported costs from existing system can be computed as follows, given the burden rate 145%: Product Direct Labor Burden Total Costs ICA 917 1,330 2,247 ICB 2,051 2,974 5,025 Capacitor 1,094 1,586 2,680 Amplifier 525 761 1,286 Diode 519 753 1,272 Based on the accounting manger’s proposal, the operation burden can be divided into machine-hour and direct labor burden. We use the revised burden rate 21% and machine-hour rate $80. 1 to show the updated costs: Product Direct Labor Burden Machine Hour Machine Burden Total Costs ICA 917 193 18. 50 1,482 2,591 ICB 2,051 431 40. 00 3,204 5,686 Capacitor 1,094 230 7. 50 601 1,924 Amplifier 525 110 5. 00 401 1,036 Diode 519 109 12. 00 961 1,589 If ETO follows the consultant’s recommend, treats the main test room and mechanical test room as different cost pools. The three-burden-pool system reports the cost: ($63. 34 for main room burden rate and $112. 63 for mechanical room) Product Direct Labor Burden Main Room Hour Mech. Room Hour Test Room Burden Total Costs ICA 917 193 8. 50 10. 00 1,665 2,774 ICB 2,051 431 14. 00 26. 00 3,815 6,297 Capacitor 1,094 230 3. 00 4. 50 697 2,021 Amplifier 525 110 4. 00 1. 00 366 1,001 Diode 519 109 7. 00 5. 00 1,007 1,635 Among the three costing systems, we prefer the consultant’s proposal (Q3). The accounting manager treats the machine hours as separate cost pool because the automated operation process leads to large percentage of total cost comparing to direct labor. Measuring the machine hour costs can help us to assess the total burden more accurate. However, given the same machine hours, the different hours spend in main room and mechanical room also incurs different costs. We can see from Exhibit 5 that mechanical room has higher unit cost per hour. We will write a custom essay sample on Seligram Inc. Case Analysis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Seligram Inc. Case Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Seligram Inc. Case Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Therefore, the three-cost-pool system can trace the costs back to the actual operation factors more clearly. (Q1) According to the two explanations shown above, the critical problem that causes ETO to fail is the single cost pool accounting system. In the single cost pool system, all products consume direct labor and overhead in the same proportion. However, some products need more direct labors while others require automated machinery operation. And the trends of direct labor obsolescence also biased the calculation of burden rate, which causes the verall product cost assessment become misleading. Managerial Accounting Case Study 2: Seligram, Inc: ETO Group 1 2 Although we prefer the consultant’s proposal, the three-cost-pool system still can be further improved by introducing another cost pool, the technical support costs (Q4). Both the accounting manager and consultant regard the administrative and technical functions as the same cost factor. However, we think the technical support is very different in nature comparing with administrative cost. Each type electrical component which sent to ETO varies greatly in its complexity. For example, a keyboard IC is much simpler then a 3D graphic processing IC and requires less (or nearly no) technical support since keyboard IC is a matured product. Administrative cost usually includes general overhead such as indirect salaried employee, security, store/warehousing, telephones, and others. If we classify the technical functions in the same cost pool as administration costs, then a keyboard IC and a 3D graphic processing IC share the same direct labor burden rate, which is not reasonable. Therefore we recommend a four-cost-pool system that separate technical support from general direct labor burden. Q5) From the data provided in Exhibit 5 and Exhibit 7, we can calculate the main test room burden rate if the new machine is included. The first year’s burden rate will be: Hours Variable Depreciation Other Total Old Machine 33,201 887,379 88,779 1,126,958 2,103,116 New Machine 400 100,000 500,000 225,000 825,000 Sum 33,601 987,379 588,779 1,351,958 2,928,116 Machi ne Hour Burden Rate $ 8 7. 14 (first year) And the remaining years’ burden rate: Hours Variable Depreciation Other Total Old Machine 33,201 887,379 88,779 1,126,958 2,103,116 New Machine 2,400 100,000 125,000 150,000 375,000 Sum 35,601 987,379 213,779 1,276,958 2,478,116 Machine Hour Burden Rate $ 6 9. 61 (remaining years) The original burden rate calculated from three-cost-pool system is $63. 34. Both the first year ($87. 14) and remaining years’ ($69. 61) burden rate per machine hour are much higher, especially for the first year. Since the new equipment is only needed by one or two customers in the foreseeable future, we should treat the new machine as separate cost center, or the new equipment will have a disastrous effect on ETO’s pricing structure.

Gay-Lussacs Law Definition (Chemistry)

Gay-Lussac's Law Definition (Chemistry) Gay-Lussacs law is an ideal gas law which states that at constant volume, the pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature  (in Kelvin). The formula for the law may be stated as: Pwhere PGay-Lussacs law is also known as the pressure law. French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac formulated it around 1808. Other ways of writing Gay-Lussacs law make it easy to solve for the pressure or temperature of a gas: PPTWhat Gay-Lussac's Law Means The importance of this gas law is that it shows that increasing the temperature of a gas causes its pressure to rise proportionally (assuming the volume doesnt change). Similarly, decreasing the temperature causes the pressure to fall proportionally. Gay If 10.0 L of oxygen exerts 97.0 kPa at 25 degrees Celsius, what temperature (in Celsius) is needed to change its pressure to standard pressure? To solve this, you first need to know (or look up) standard pressure. Its 101.325 kPa. Next, remember that gas laws apply to absolute temperature, which means Celsius (or Fahrenheit) must be converted to Kelvin. The formula to convert Celsius to Kelvin is: K degrees Celsius 273.15 K 25.0 273.15 K 298.15 Now you can plug the values into the formula to solve for the temperature: TTTAll thats left is to convert the temperature back to Celsius: C K - 273.15 C 311.44 - 273.15 C 38.29 degrees Celsius Using the correct number of significant figures, the temperature is 38.3 degrees Celsius. Gay-Lussac's Other Gas Laws Many scholars consider Gay-Lussac to be the first to formulate Amontons law of pressure-temperature. Amontons law states that the pressure of a certain mass and volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature. In other words, if the temperature of a gas increases, so does the gass pressure, providing its mass and volume remain constant. Gay-Lussac is also credited for other gas laws, which are sometimes called Gay-Lussacs law.  For instance, Gay-Lussac stated that all gases have the same mean thermal expansivity at constant pressure and temperature. Basically, this law states that many gases behave predictably when heated. Gay-Lussac is sometimes credited as being the first to state Daltons law, which says that the total pressure of a gas is the sum of the partial pressures of individual gases.

Socialization Paper

Socialization Paper Socialization Paper Socialization Paper Sarri Lajas PSY/211 June 23, 2015 Dr. Petteway Socialization Paper Attitudes can be shapes by culture, experience, situations, and even pressure from others or the need to be consistent (Carter & Seifert, 2013). It involves our emotions, our actions, and our thoughts. These are also called the ABC’s: Affects, Behaviors, and Cognitions. When these three aspects are in harmony, then it is easy to determine a person’s motivation. A conflict arises, however, when there is an inconsistency in any of these areas. This is why people will work diligently to try and make their actions and attitudes match. Social pressures will create some of the tension that must be mitigated to successfully fit in the various social settings we find ourselves in. Prejudice, aggression, and attraction help us posture ourselves properly among our peers and allow us to function within the social structures in which we interact. Because of the social nature of human beings, we have a high need to be accepted. That need for acceptance often serves as motivation for our behavior in group settings. Conformity and obedience are two phenomenon that have produced some disturbing results in various social experiments that have been conducted over the years. Some experiments have shown how people will often change their responses, even when they believe they are correct, simply because the majority of people in the experiment gave a different answer. Whether it was out of fear of being ridiculed if they were indeed incorrect, or because they preferred being non-confrontational, the scenario still resulted in the subjects often conforming to those around him or her. Other experiments showed how people who perceived to be instructed by person’s of authority in certain settings would move ahead with mmorally questionable actions despite their own discomfort in order

Lewis acid catalysts, eg. Fe3+, Ru3+, Zn2+, etc., for certain organic Thesis Proposal

Lewis acid catalysts, eg. Fe3+, Ru3+, Zn2+, etc., for certain organic transformations - Thesis Proposal Example te possesses a series of basic sites, reaction specificity is necessary for that particular interaction between acid and base so that the desired functionality is achieved and not the other. The Lewis acid predetermines the nature of the intermediate cationic specie. It can be an ion pair, a covalent compound with weak C-X bond or an intermediary compound (Suzuki 1557). Lewis acids found their applications in a range of carbon-carbon forming reactions. Usually, Mukaiyama aldol synthesis (Mukaiyama, Banno, and Narasaka 7503), Diels-Alder reactions (Clayden, Greeves, Warren, and Wothers 905) ene reactions and Friedel-Crafts reaction (Clayden, Greeves, Warren, and Wothers 920) are catalysed by commonly employed Lewis acids such as BF3, TiCl4, SnCl4 and AlCl3. These compounds can activate a series of organic groups and usually exist as dimers, trimmers or oligomers. In most cases, such reactions are highly efficient but with little or no chemo, region or stereoselectivity. It was noted that only small changes in ligands, surrounding the central metal ion can lead to monomeric structures in organic solvents thus increasing their acidity and reactivity. Also, these changes in ligands change the way the newly formed Lewis acids interact with their substrates, thus manifesting new selectivity (Yamamoto and Saito 239). As an example of the idea presented above, two compounds can be put forward: MAD (bis(2,6-di-tert-butyl-4methylphenoxide) methylaluminum) and ATPH (tris(2,6-diphenylphenoxide) tris(2,6-diphenylphenoxide)). Both compounds were prepared from Me3Al and the corresponding, highly substituted phenol according to the scheme below: Both compounds are highly useful in highly specific chemical transformation. It is possible to lower the activity of the Lewis acids prepared in a way that ATPH was by taking more electron donating organic substrates. Comparing to conventionally employed Lewis acids, it was established that the steric effect of the presented above

Benefits of Effective Leadership in 21st Century Organization-HR Dissertation - 1

Benefits of Effective Leadership in 21st Century Organization-HR - Dissertation Example The other methodological components discussed here include the sample selection, the statistical procedures that were used, not to mention the ethical considerations and methodological limitations that were considered. The overall intent is to deepen the insight and understanding of the reader as to this study’s internal and external validity. 3.2 Research Approach It is necessary to discuss the research approach, to understand the rationale behind its choice. In particular, the present study aims to use a purely quantitative study in determining the benefits of leadership to 21st century enterprises. Quantitative studies are positive in nature, and so aim to further understand a phenomenon of interest by taking it and then separating it into smaller, simpler parts for greater structure and ease of measurement (Bernard 2006). These separate parts are analyzed on their own, hopefully promoting general understanding of the bigger picture with the help of universal laws. This particular study focuses on the benefits of effective leadership to contemporary organisations. Such quantitative methods are arguably the best choice for researchers hampered by time and resource limitations, due to their remarkable clarity, as well as their straightforward and well-structured nature. Given a scientifically valid survey, research objectives can easily be met , and a large amount of data can be culled from a vast sample with only minimal effort (Gall, Borg & Gall 2003). These data, gathered from the respondents – in this case, the HR representatives of contemporary organisations – serve as the primary data. Moreover, it was important for the researcher to ensure the questionnaire’s validity and reliability prior to its deployment, to ensure correspondingly valid research outcomes (Bryman 2001). Quantitative methods often boast of a plethora of advantages compared to qualitative ones, but also have a number of flaws as well. For one thing, quantitative methods are not usually known for being flexible, nor are they generally capable of gathering detailed data on their own. On the other hand, qualitative research methods can generally be adequate even with just a single case being investigated, assuming that said investigation was in-depth (Sekaran 2000). Regardless, though, quantitative methods are still the more advis able choice for researchers who lack manpower and resources (Johnson & Turner 2002) for data gathering and analyses. 3.3 Research Strategy The purpose of this study is to examine the perceived benefits of effective leadership to various organisations, all by using purely quantitative methods. Specifically, the survey that was used for this study is the Multi-Factor Leadership Questionnaire. The point of a survey is that specific information is collected on a given population, and their effectiveness and efficiency help to explain why researchers the world over have used them to great effect. For instance, researchers found such methods well-suited for denoting the specific traits of their population, and for gathering huge amounts of data while expending only minimal time, effort and resources (Gall et al 2003). The general idea behind a survey is to gather data with the intent of deepening familiarity with the phenomenon of interest, and with its related constructs – in this case, the perceived benefits of effective leadership to modern-day organisations. Such a method also has the best results when one’s sample size is larger, and when one desires to tackle the constructs of interest systematically and in a structured manner (Bryman 2001). Questionnaires are typically pencil-and-paper instruments, either mailed to

Implementing Change Paper Essay Example for Free

Implementing Change Paper Essay Managers A manager is a person who is responsible for being in charge of all or a piece of a company or organization. A manager is very important and can make or break a company. According to DuBrin (2008), desirable personal characteristics make a manager somebody that the employees can look up to, and sense content following them. Some of those characteristics are motivation, integrity, optimism, dependability, and confidence. Some level of business insight is essential for a manager. Being knowledgeable about fundamental business values and practices can be helpful, such as having knowledge of the company, being organized, money management, and legal implications. It is necessary for a good manager to be able to communicate thoroughly and effectively. Managers should make sure to develop the skill to converse as part of his or her efforts. Some characteristics that should be acquired to be an affective conversationalist and execute management duties are verbal and written communication, constructive feedback, active listening, and organized presentations. Managers should also know how to build professional relationships with employees with qualities such as respect, values, collaboration, and being a team player. The contents of this paper will define the roles and responsibilities of a manager when change is implemented and how he or she should handle the change using assessment, planning, implementation, and evaluation. Roles and responsibilities in implementing change Change is very popular in any company or organization. Change management deals with how changes to the company or department are managed so they dont degrade performance. Once an organization commit to planned change, the manager needs to construct a reasonable step by step approach in order to achieve the goals of change. According to Gilley (2001), a planned change entails managers to follow a seven step method for successful implementations. The first step is to recognize that change is needed. The change may be due to either internal or external forces but it needs to be addressed. The second step is to develop the goals of the change. It is required to establish the reason why the change is necessary then identify the needed changes in terms of products, technology, structure, and culture. The third step is to select a change agent, who will be the person that takes control and is responsible to execute the planned change. The change agent must be attentive to things that need revamping, open to new and good ideas, and supportive of the implementation of those ideas into actual practice. The fourth step is to diagnose the current climate, in which the change agent sets about assembling data about the climate of the company in order to assist employees in preparation for change. Preparing employees for change involves direct and influential feedback about the negatives of the current situation. The fifth step is to choose an implementation technique. Managers can make themselves more receptive to pressures for change by using networks of organizations with diverse perceptions and views, being exposed to new ideas by visiting other organizations, and using outside standards of performance, such as competitors development. The sixth step is to develop a plan that determines the when, where, and how of the change. The seventh and last step is to finally implement the plan. After all the questions have been answered, the plan should be put into operation. Once a change has started, initial excitement can scatter in the facade of everyday issues. Managers can retain the momentum for change by providing resources, developing new capabilities and skills, emphasizing new behaviors, and building a support system for those initiating the change. Handling staff resistance to change During a change, employees often act negatively towards that change. The staff is usually resistant to change for a number of different reasons such as fear of loss of job, fear of the unknown, loss of control, lack of competence, poor timing, peer pressure, lack of trust and support, and many more reasons. There are a number of ways managers can help employees overcome resistance to change. According to Sharma (2006), one proven technique is education and communication. Employees can be educated about the nature of the change and the reason behind it before it takes place using reports, memos, and presentations. Another important factor of overcoming resistance is inviting employee contribution and involvement in the plan and implementation stages of the change. Another possible approach is through facilitation and support. Managers should be sure to supply employees with the resources they need to make the change, be supportive of their efforts, listen to their problem, and understand that performance level may go down initially. Some companies deal with resistance to change through compromise and rewards by offering employees incentives to guarantee their cooperation. Other companies choose to manipulate, such as giving a resistance leader an important position in the change process. Whatever approaches that a manager uses to handle employees resistance to change, it is important that they acknowledge the resistance and do something about it.

The Cold War :: essays research papers

1. Name of President- Harry S. Truman 2. Dates in Office- 1945-1952 3. Political Party- Democrat 4. Presidential Cold War Philosophy President Truman’s philosophy was to come to the defense of those countries in danger of Soviet takeover, but the US would not start a war with the Soviet Union. He also made alliances with Europe through NATO, which was a contrast to the past because from the time of Washington’s Farewell Address, Americans have strongly favored avoiding all foreign entanglements. He also was taken over by the paranoia created by the Red Scare because he ordered investigations of 3 million federal employees for â€Å"security risks.† 5. Actions taken during presidency in regard to Cold War.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a. The Beginning of the Cold War- The end of World War II raised the issue of the shape of the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   new world and what new political alliances would be formed. This would become the major   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   source of contention between the world’s leading political-economic system, capitalism and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   communism. The American economy was growing more dependent on exports, while American   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   industry needed to import metals. This required open trade and friendly relations with those   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   nations that provided metal. With many economies in shambles, competition for the few healthy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   economies became fierce. Germany, Japan, and Great Britain, who had been the strongest before   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   war had either been defeated or their influence was greatly reduced. The United States and the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Soviet Union became the world’s leading two powers, and they quickly became enemies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  b. The Truman Doctrine- After the Soviet Union had spread communism to Hungary   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   and Czechoslovakia, it threatened to take over Greece and Turkey. Truman was intent on   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   preventing this. The Truman Doctrine states that the US would support the free peoples who   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   were resisting the attempted subjugation of the Soviet Union. This was the cornerstone of a   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   larger policy called containment, which provided that while the US would not go to war with   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   the Soviet Union, it would come to the defense of countries in danger of Soviet takeover.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  c. The Marshall Plan- This was a way to gain alliances. This plan sent more than $12 billion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   to Europe to help rebuild its cities and economy. In return for that money, those countries   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   were expected to become American allies. It was offered to Eastern Europe, but no country   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   participated.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  d. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)- This was a mutual defense alliance

I. Brief Overview of different sculpture styles A. Egyptian Sculpture

Egyptian sculpture is distinct in their symbolic formality based on an ancient set of rules for three-dimensional works of art and were not meant to capture or memorialize a certain event or point in time. Egyptian sculpture is primarily used for religious purposes, mostly to guard over the dead. It is typically hewn from stone and figures preserve the cubic form of the original slab.The figures are always deliberately facing the front and much of the detail is hewn to represent characteristics of the frontal image, and is usually painted with vibrant colors.Later Greco-Roman influence later transformed the detail of the face to more closely approximate a realistic representation of the human face. (â€Å"Egypt†) B. Greek Sculpture The most important samples of Greek sculpture deal with religious themes, although civic, domestic and sepulchral themes are also common. When dealing with human subjects, realism tempered by idealism is the order of the day. Some were large, others small enough to place on a pedestal. Subjects include iconic figures such as the Greek gods and goddesses, priests, sacred animals and others of votive character.The most popular type of Greek sculpture is the bas relief and in the round. Greek sculpture was also used to honor civic events such as treaties and national games. These memorials are mythopoetic in character. In general Greek sculptures in marble, stone, terracotta, bronze or wood are distinct in its grace and beauty, its hint of action and value as a record of dress and fashion of the era. Finishing included liberal applications of oil, wax and color for a more life-like sheen except for those made of marble, where color was added only for emphasis.(â€Å"Greek sculpture – part I†) C. Roman Sculpture Sculpture as an art form developed late in Roman society because Romans considered all forms of art from a practical point of view and held it in contempt as work only slaves should do. Much of the work done in sculpture in the 2nd and 3rd Century B. C. was likely done by Etruscans. During the reign of Augustus (63 B. C. – 14 A. D. ), Romans began drawing away from mostly decorative and utilitarian subjects of sculpture to more mythological themes.The conquest of the Greeks shifted the material of choice from bronze to marble, and a shift from in the round to relief sculptures. Masses of Greek works of art were transported to Roman strongholds and excited much admiration but no desire to produce their own. Wealthy Romans commissioned copies of the more famous works for display in their homes. With Augustus, there was a dawning approximation to the Greek attitude towards art which did not survive his demise, but which did produce some of the more beautiful pieces of Roman sculpture such as the Altar of Peace (erected c. 12 B. C. ).(â€Å"Greek and Roman Art†) Only the development of relief on sarcophagi continued and outperformed Greek in this instance, and is evident in th e many extant samples such as the arch at Beneventum. The distinct Roman robustness and flavor is more evident in larger pieces of work rather than individual pieces. (â€Å"Roman sculpture†) II. Descriptions of the selected works of art A. The Indian Triumph of Dionysus (Late 2nd Century, Marble) This relief was used as one side of a Roman sarcophagus representing the triumphal return of Dionysus, the Greek god of wine after his sojourn in India and the East.Known as Bacchus in Roman mythology, he is portrayed here in a reclining fashion amidst what appears to be a procession or festival celebrating his return. He is as usual portrayed with grapes about his head, signifying wine. He is surrounded by men, women, children as well as a herald and he is apparently being carried by soldiers. Satyrs are also present, as well as panthers, which are often associated with this mythological figure. There is at least one elephant and a horse. The whole relief is a study in movement, ev en dancing.Not one of the figure is in repose, and there is much going on. Each figure contributes to the richness of the representation, from the fruits in the basket, to the two children astride the elephant. All elements are on the move, even the draperies of the women. This is a classic example of the expertise developed by Roman sculptors for this particular form of art, and illustrative of the Greek influence, from the subject of the relief to the style of the dress. B. Portrait Figure of a Ruler (Roman c. A. D. 200—225, Bronze)This bronze figure is a rare example of the period before marble became the material of choice for sculpture in-the-round. It is speculated that this was in emulation of Augustus, who in turn followed the example of Alexander the Great who declared himself a god. Probably once contained in the temple of an Asia Minor emperor, this is missing the head, the right leg midway to the calf and the left foot. It is a muscular yet graceful figure, striki ng a pose of some authority and arrogance, as if declaiming to his adoring public or announcing some important news.It is also incredibly detailed, somewhat embarrassingly so in this instance as the figure is quite large and the details stand out somewhat. The head was probably cast separately from the body as the break looks clean, as if from a joint. It is a magnificent specimen of manhood, and the face was probably as beautiful. It would probably benefit from some cleaning. C. Monumental Statue of the Pharaoh Ramesses II Enthroned (Egypt, New Kingdom, 1386-1349 BC and 1279-1212 BC, Grandiorite) This monument to Ramses II (c. 1290-1224 BCE), who is said to have ruled over Egypt for almost 67 years, are found in Nubia, near the Sudan.â€Å"There are figures of Ramses II with the prime gods of the New Kingdom, including Ptah, the Memphis creater god, Re-Harakhte, the sun god of Heliopolis and Amun Re, the great god of Thebes†. Together they guard the entrance to the temple de dicated to these figures. The Great Temple of Ramses II is on the left while the Temple of Hathor/Nefertari is on the right. They were cut into natural rock, and at 20 meters high are considered colossi. (Sullivan) There are four figures in all, although the figure on the right of Ramses II is missing a torso. The rock is pinkish in tinge.The figures are sitting on thrones facing front, all the hands on their laps. The figures are rigid although the expression on the Ramses’s face is placid, with even a hint of a smile. The features are well-formed, incredible considering how it has been exposed to wind and sand for all these years. Inscriptions are carved in the arms. At their feet between the legs are smaller figures standing upright, perhaps representing servants or priests. In between each colossi are women figures are dressed finely, and are perhaps royalty. There is much vandalism, names and dates scratched into the stone as far back as 1875.The podium is inscribed with hieroglyphics and the rightmost figure had lost the beard. There appears to be figures of baboons over the entrance of the temple. III. Comparison of the three sculptures The Roman works of art are good representative examples of the two kinds of sculptures popular during that period: relief in marble and sculpture in the round in bronze. The colossi Ramses II is a typical example of the three-dimensional Egyptian style. There appears to be nothing less similar than the two art types. The composition for one thing is completely different.In Roman sculptures, the lines are never linear. The single subject appears about to move or speak, so dynamic is the pose. In the relief, there is visible interaction among the elements of the sculpture, and each figure tells a different story. It memorializes a moment and an occasion. The figures themselves are idealistically and naturally constructed, celebrating the Roman idea of beauty of form and structure. In the Egyptian sculpture, the figu res are stiff and formally posed. No movement is implied, and the pose is strictly linear and frontal, as traditional for Egyptian sculpture.The figures themselves are stylized, showing no definition of muscles or other details but with some emphasis on the face and the ornaments such as the headdress and the clothes, which are as stiff and immobile as the body. It memorializes the figures as immovable and permanent, hence the size of the statues and the fact that it was hewn right out of solid rock. The use of hieroglyphics is also prolific, taking the place of visual representation in telling the story of the figures. Yet there are similarities, mostly in the theme, which is divinity.Ramses is portrayed as side by side the most important gods of the New Kingdom, while the single sculpture deified the emperor and the relief treated the subject of a god celebrated, Dionysus. IV. Conclusion While this paper does not include a specimen of Greek sculpture, it has been discussed earlier that the Romans closely followed the Greek style of sculpture, mostly by using imported sculptures as a basis for copies for their own sculptures. A cursory glance at extant Greek sculpture in the round will immediately reveal how closely the Roman versions mimic the Greek style, from material to posture to subject.Ancient sculptures are representative of the society in which they were produced. They are lasting monuments to the great civilizations which spawned them, and while each is stylistically different, they provide valuable insights into how the ancient Romans and Egyptians lived and how they chose to be remembered. Works Cited â€Å"Egypt . † Ancient Arts. n. d. Detroit Institute of Arts. 24 July 2007 . â€Å"Egyptian Sculpture – Part 1. † Old And Sold. n. d. 24 July 2007 .â€Å"Greek and Roman Art. † Amazon. com. 2007. 24 July 2007 â€Å"Greek Sculpture – Part 1. † Old And Sold. n. d. 24 July 2007 . â€Å"Roman Sculpture. † Old And Sold. n. d. 24 July 2007 . Museum of Fine Arts Houston. 2007. 24 July 2007 . Sullivan, Anne. â€Å"The Great Temple of Ramses II. † Bluffton University. 2001. 24 July 2007 .

African American Culture Essay

African American culture in the United States includes the various cultural traditions of African ethnic groups. It is both part of and distinct from American culture. The U. S. Census Bureau defines African Americans as â€Å"people having origins in any of the Black race groups of Africa. â€Å"[1] African American culture is indigenous to the descendants in the U. S. of survivors of the Middle Passage. It is rooted in Africa and is an amalgam of chiefly sub-Saharan African and Sahelean cultures. Although slavery greatly restricted the ability of Africans in America to practice their cultural traditions, many practices, values and beliefs survived and over time have incorporated elements of European American culture. There are even certain facets of African American culture that were brought into being or made more prominent as a result of slavery; an example of this is how drumming became used as a means of communication and establishing a community identity during that time. The result is a dynamic, creative culture that has had and continues to have a profound impact on mainstream American culture and on world culture as well. After Emancipation, these uniquely African American traditions continued to grow. They developed into distinctive traditions in music, art, literature, religion, food, holidays, amongst others. While for some time sociologists, such as Gunnar Myrdal and Patrick Moynihan, believed that African Americans had lost most cultural ties with Africa, anthropological field research by Melville Hersovits and others demonstrated that there is a continuum of African traditions among Africans in the New World from the West Indies to the United States. The greatest influence of African cultural practices on European cultures is found below the Mason-Dixon in the southeastern United States, especially in the Carolinas among the Gullah people and in Louisiana. African American culture often developed separately from mainstream American culture because of African Americans’ desire to practice their own traditions, as well as the persistence of racial segregation in America. Consequently African American culture has become a significant part of American culture and yet, at the same time, remains a distinct culture apart from it. History From the earliest days of slavery, slave owners sought to exercise control over their slaves by attempting to strip them of their African culture. The physical isolation and societal marginalization of African slaves and, later, of their free progeny, however, actually facilitated the retention of significant elements of traditional culture among Africans in the New World generally, and in the U. S. in particular. Slave owners deliberately tried to repress political organization in order to deal with the many slave rebellions that took place in the southern United States, Brazil, Haiti, and the Dutch Guyanas. African cultures,slavery,slave rebellions,and the civil rights movements(circa 1800s-160s)have shaped African American religious, familial, political and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in myriad ways, in politics, economics, language, music, hairstyles, fashion, dance, religion and worldview, and food preparation methods. In the United States, the very legislation that was designed to strip slaves of culture and deny them education served in many ways to strengthen it. In turn, African American culture has had a pervasive, transformative impact on myriad elements of mainstream American culture, among them language, music, dance, religion, cuisine, and agriculture. This process of mutual creative exchange is called creolization. Over time, the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubiquitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture, but on world culture as well. Oral tradition Slaveholders limited or prohibited education of enslaved African Americans because they believed it might lead to revolts or escape plans. Hence, African-based oral traditions became the primary means of preserving history, morals, and other cultural information among the people. This was consistent with the griot practices of oral history in many African and other cultures that did not rely on the written word. Many of these cultural elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling. The folktales provided African Americans the opportunity to inspire and educate one another. Examples of African American folktales include trickster tales of Br’er Rabbit and heroic tales such as that of John Henry. The Uncle Remus stories by Joel Chandler Harris helped to bring African American folk tales into mainstream adoption. Harris did not appreciate the complexity of the stories nor their potential for a lasting impact on society. Characteristics of the African American oral tradition present themselves in a number of forms. African American preachers tend to perform rather than simply speak. The emotion of the subject is carried through the speaker’s tone, volume, and movement, which tend to mirror the rising action, climax, and descending action of the sermon. Often song, dance, verse and structured pauses are placed throughout the sermon. Techniques such as call-and-response are used to bring the audience into the presentation. In direct contrast to recent tradition in other American and Western cultures, it is an acceptable and common audience reaction to interrupt and affirm the speaker. Spoken word is another example of how the African American oral tradition influences modern American popular culture. Spoken word artists employ the same techniques as African American preachers including movement, rhythm, and audience participation. Rap music from the 1980’s and beyond has been seen as an extension of oral culture. Harlem Renaissance [pic] Zora Neale Hurston was a prominent literary figure during the Harlem Renaissance. Main article: Harlem Renaissance The first major public recognition of African American culture occurred during the Harlem Renaissance. In the 1920s and 1930s, African American music, literature, and art gained wide notice. Authors such as Zora Neale Hurston and Nella Larsen and poets such as Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, and Countee Cullen wrote works describing the African American experience. Jazz, swing, blues and other musical forms entered American popular music. African American artists such as William H. Johnson and Palmer Hayden created unique works of art featuring African Americans. The Harlem Renaissance was also a time of increased political involvement for African Americans. Among the notable African American political movements founded in the early 20th century are the United Negro Improvement Association and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The Nation of Islam, a notable Islamic religious movement, also began in the early 1930s. African American cultural movement The Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s followed in the wake of the non-violent American Civil Rights Movement. The movement promoted racial pride and ethnic cohesion in contrast to the focus on integration of the Civil Rights Movement, and adopted a more militant posture in the face of racism. It also inspired a new renaissance in African American literary and artistic expression generally referred to as the African American or â€Å"Black Arts Movement. † The works of popular recording artists such as Nina Simone (Young, Gifted and Black) and The Impressions (Keep On Pushin’), as well as the poetry, fine arts and literature of the time, shaped and reflected the growing racial and political consciousness. Among the most prominent writers of the African American Arts Movement were poet Nikki Giovanni; poet and publisher Don L. Lee, who later became known as Haki Madhubuti; poet and playwright Leroi Jones, later known as Amiri Baraka; and Sonia Sanchez. Other influential writers were Ed Bullins, Dudley Randall, Mari Evans, June Jordan, Larry Neal and Ahmos Zu-Bolton. Another major aspect of the African American Arts Movement was the infusion of the African aesthetic, a return to a collective cultural sensibility and ethnic pride that was much in evidence during the Harlem Renaissance and in the celebration of Negritude among the artistic and literary circles in the U. S. , Caribbean and the African continent nearly four decades earlier: the idea that â€Å"black is beautiful. † During this time, there was a resurgence of interest in, and an embrace of, elements of African culture within African American culture that had been suppressed or devalued to conform to Eurocentric America. Natural hairstyles, such as the afro, and African clothing, such as the dashiki, gained popularity. More importantly, the African American aesthetic encouraged personal pride and political awareness among African Americans. Music [pic] Men playing the djembe, a traditional West African drum adopted into African American and American culture. The bags and the clothing of the man on the right are printed with traditional kente cloth patterns. African American music is rooted in the typically polyrhythmic music of the ethnic groups of Africa, specifically those in the Western, Sahelean, and Sub-Saharan regions. African oral traditions, nurtured in slavery, encouraged the use of music to pass on history, teach lessons, ease suffering, and relay messages. The African pedigree of African American music is evident in some common elements: call and response, syncopation, percussion, improvisation, swung notes, blue notes, the use of falsetto, melisma, and complex multi-part harmony. During slavery, Africans in America blended traditional European hymns with African elements to create spirituals. Many African Americans sing Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing in addition to the American national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner, or in lieu of it. Written by James Weldon Johnson and John Rosamond Johnson in 1900 to be performed for the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, the song was, and continues to be, a popular way for African Americans to recall past struggles and express ethnic solidarity, faith and hope for the future. The song was adopted as the â€Å"Negro National Anthem† by the NAACP in 1919. African American children are taught the song at school, church or by their families. Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing traditionally is sung immediately following, or instead of, The Star-Spangled Banner at events hosted by African American churches, schools, and other organizations. In the 1800s, as the result of the blackface minstrel show, African American music entered mainstream American society. By the early twentieth century, several musical forms with origins in the African American community had transformed American popular music. Aided by the technological innovations of radio and phonograph records, ragtime, jazz, blues, and swing also became popular overseas, and the 1920s became known as the Jazz Age. The early 20th century also saw the creation of the first African American Broadway shows, films such as King Vidor’s Hallelujah!, and operas such as George Gershwin’s Porgy and Bess. Rock and roll, doo wop, soul, and R&B developed in the mid 20th century. These genres became very popular in white audiences and were influences for other genres such as surf. The dozens, an urban African American tradition of using rhyming slang to put down your enemies (or friends) developed through the smart-ass street jive of the early Seventies into a new form of music. In the South Bronx, the half speaking, half singing rhythmic street talk of ‘rapping’ grew into the hugely successful cultural force known as Hip Hop. Hip Hop would become a multicultural movement. However, it is still important to many African Americans. The African American Cultural Movement of the 1960s and 1970s also fueled the growth of funk and later hip-hop forms such as rap, hip house, new jack swing and go go. African American music has experienced far more widespread acceptance in American popular music in the 21st century than ever before. In addition to continuing to develop newer musical forms, modern artists have also started a rebirth of older genres in the form of genres such as neo soul and modern funk-inspired groups. Dance [pic]. The Cakewalk was the first African American dance to gain widespread popularity in the United States. [pic] African American dance, like other aspects of African American culture, finds its earliest roots in the dances of the hundreds of African ethnic groups that made up African slaves in the Americas as well as influences from European sources in the United States. Dance in the African tradition, and thus in the tradition of slaves, was a part of both every day life and special occasions. Many of these traditions such as get down, ring shouts, and other elements of African body language survive as elements of modern dance. In the 1800s, African American dance began to appear in minstrel shows. These shows often presented African Americans as caricatures for ridicule to large audiences. The first African American dance to become popular with White dancers was the cakewalk in 1891. Later dances to follow in this tradition include the Charleston, the Lindy Hop, and the Jitterbug. During the Harlem Renaissance, all African American Broadway shows such as Shuffle Along helped to establish and legitimize African American dancers. African American dance forms such as tap, a combination of African and European influences, gained widespread popularity thanks to dancers such as Bill Robinson and were used by leading White choreographers who often hired African American dancers. Contemporary African American dance is descended from these earlier forms and also draws influence from African and Caribbean dance forms. Groups such as the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater have continued to contribute to the growth of this form. Modern popular dance in America is also greatly influenced by African American dance. American popular dance has also drawn many influences from African American dance most notably in the hip hop genre. Art [pic] Sand Dunes at Sunset, Atlantic City by Henry Ossawa Tanner 1859-1937 From its early origins in slave communities, through the end of the twentieth century, African-American art has made a vital contribution to the art of the United States. During the period between the 1600s and the early 1800s, art took the form of small drums, quilts, wrought-iron figures and ceramic vessels in the southern United States. These artifacts have similarities with comparable crafts in West and Central Africa. In contrast, African American artisans like the New England–based engraver Scipio Moorhead and the Baltimore portrait painter Joshua Johnson created art that was conceived in a thoroughly western European fashion. During the 1800s, Harriet Powers made quilts in rural Georgia, United States that are now considered among the finest examples of nineteenth-century Southern quilting. Later in the 20th century, the women of Gee’s Bend developed a distinctive, bold, and sophisticated quilting style based on traditional African American quilts with a geometric simplicity that developed separately but was like that of Amish quilts and modern art. After the American Civil War, museums and galleries began more frequently to display the work of African American artists. Cultural expression in mainstream venues was still limited by the dominant European aesthetic and by racial prejudice. To increase the visibility of their work, many African American artists traveled to Europe where they had greater freedom. It was not until the Harlem Renaissance that more whites began to pay attention to African American art in America. [pic] Kara Walker, Cut, Cut paper and adhesive on wall, Brent Sikkema NYC. During the 1920s, artists such as Raymond Barthe, Aaron Douglas, Augusta Savage, and photographer James Van Der Zee became well known for their work. During the Great Depression, new opportunities arose for these and other African American artists under the WPA. In later years, other programs and institutions, such as the New York City-based Harmon Foundation, helped to foster African American artistic talent. Augusta Savage, Elizabeth Catlett, Lois Mailou Jones, Romare Bearden, Jacob Lawrence and others exhibited in museums and juried art shows, and built reputations and followings for themselves. In the 1950s and 1960s, there were very few widely accepted African American artists. Despite this, The Highwaymen, a loose association of 27 African American artists from Ft. Pierce, Florida, created idyllic, quickly realized images of the Florida landscape and peddled some 50,000 of them from the trunks of their cars. They sold their art directly to the public rather than through galleries and art agents, thus receiving the name â€Å"The Highwaymen†. Rediscovered in the mid-1990s, today they are recognized as an important part of American folk history. Their artwork is widely collected by enthusiasts and original pieces can easily fetch thousands of dollars in auctions and sales. The Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s was another period of resurgent interest in African American art. During this period, several African-American artists gained national prominence, among them Lou Stovall, Ed Love, Charles White, and Jeff Donaldson. Donaldson and a group of African-American artists formed the Afrocentric collective AFRICOBRA, which remains in existence today. The sculptor Martin Puryear, whose work has been acclaimed for years, is being honored with a 30-year retrospective of his work at the Museum of Modern Art in New York starting November 2007. Notable contemporary African American artists include David Hammons, Eugene J. Martin, Charles Tolliver, and Kara Walker. Literature [pic] Langston Hughes, a notable African American poet of the Harlem Renaissance. African American literature has its roots in the oral traditions of African slaves in America. The slaves used stories and fables in much the same way as they used music. These stories influenced the earliest African American writers and poets in the 18thcentury such as Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano. These authors reached early high points by telling slave narratives. During the early 20th century Harlem Renaissance, numerous authors and poets, such as Langston Hughes, W. E. B. Dubois, and Booker T. Washington, grappled with how to respond to discrimination in America. Authors during the Civil Rights era, such as Richard Wright, James Baldwin and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation, oppression and other aspects of African American life. This tradition continues today with authors who have been accepted as an integral part of American literature, with works such as Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley, The Color Purple by Alice Walker, and Beloved by Nobel Prize-winning Toni Morrison, and series by Octavia Butler and Walter Mosley that have achieved both best-selling and/or award-winning status. Museums The African American Museum Movement emerged during the 1950s and 1960s to preserve the heritage of the African American experience and to ensure its proper interpretation in American history. Museums devoted to African American history are found in many African American neighborhoods. Institutions such as the African American Museum and Library at Oakland and The African American Museum in Cleveland were created by African Americans to teach and investigate cultural history that, until recent decades was primarily preserved trough oral traditions. Language Generations of hardships imposed on the African American community created distinctive language patterns. Slave owners often intentionally mixed people who spoke different African languages to discourage communication in any language other than English. This, combined with prohibitions against education, led to the development of pidgins, simplified mixtures of two or more languages that speakers of different languages could use to communicate. Examples of pidgins that became fully developed languages include Creole, common to Haiti,and Gullah, common to the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. African American Vernacular English is a type variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of the American English language closely associated with the speech of but not exclusive to African Americans. While AAVE is academically considered a legitimate dialect because of its logical structure, some of both Caucasians and African Americans consider it slang or the result of a poor command of Standard American English. Inner city African American children who are isolated by speaking only AAVE have more difficulty with standardized testing and, after school, moving to the mainstream world for work. It is common for many speakers of AAVE to code switch between AAVE and Standard American English depending on the setting. Fashion and aesthetics [pic]. A man weaving kente cloth in Ghana. Attire The cultural explosion of the 1960s saw the incorporation of surviving cultural dress with elements from modern fashion and West African traditional clothing to create a uniquely African American traditional style. Kente cloth is the best known African textile. These festive woven patterns, which exist in numerous varieties, were originally made by the Ashanti and Ewe peoples of Ghana and Togo. Kente fabric also appears in a number of Western style fashions ranging from casual t-shirts to formal bow ties and cummerbunds. Kente strips are often sewn into liturgical and academic robes or worn as stoles. Since the Black Arts Movement, traditional African clothing has been popular amongst African Americans for both formal and informal occasions. Another common aspect of fashion in African American culture involves the appropriate dress for worship in the Black church. It is expected in most churches that an individual should present their best appearance for worship. African American women in particular are known for wearing vibrant dresses and suits. An interpretation of a passage from the Christian Bible, â€Å"†¦every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head†¦ â€Å", has led to the tradition of wearing elaborate Sunday hats, sometimes known as â€Å"crowns. † Hair Hair styling in African American culture is greatly varied. African American hair is typically composed of tightly coiled curls. The predominant styles for women involve the straightening of the hair through the application of heat or chemical processes. These treatments form the base for the most commonly socially acceptable hairstyles in the United States. Alternatively, the predominant and most socially acceptable practice for men is to leave one’s hair natural. Often, as men age and begin to lose their hair, the hair is either closely cropped, or the head is shaved completely free of hair. However, since the 1960s, natural hairstyles, such as the afro, braids, and dreadlocks, have been growing in popularity. Although the association with radical political movements and their vast difference from mainstream Western hairstyles, the styles have not yet attained widespread social acceptance. Maintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African American men than in other male populations in the U. S. In fact, the soul patch is so named because African American men, particularly jazz musicians, popularized the style. The preference for facial hair among African American men is due partly to personal taste, but because they are more prone than other ethnic groups to develop a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae, commonly referred to as razor bumps, many prefer not to shave. Body image The European aesthetic and attendant mainstream concepts of beauty are often at odds with the African body form. Because of this, African American women often find themselves under pressure to conform to European standards of beauty. Still, there are individuals and groups who are working towards raising the standing of the African aesthetic among African Americans and internationally as well. This includes efforts toward promoting as models those with clearly defined African features; the mainstreaming of natural hairstyles; and, in women, fuller, more voluptuous body types. Religion While African Americans practice a number of religions, Protestant Christianity is by far the most popular. Additionally, 14% of Muslims in the United States and Canada are African American. Christianity [pic] A river baptism in New Bern, North Carolina near the turn of the 20th century. The religious institutions of African American Christians commonly are referred tocollectively as the black church. During slavery, many slaves were stripped of their African belief systems and typically denied free religious practice. Slaves managed, however, to hang on to some practices by integrating them into Christian worship in secret meetings. These practices, including dance, shouts, African rhythms, and enthusiastic singing, remain a large part of worship in the African American church. African American churches taught that all people were equal in God’s eyes and viewed the doctrine of obedience to one’s master taught in white churches as hypocritical. Instead the African American church focused on the message of equality and hopes for a better future. Before and after emancipation, racial segregation in America prompted the development of organized African American denominations. The first of these was the AME Church founded by Richard Allen in 1787. An African American church is not necessarily a separate denomination. Several predominantly African American churches exist as members of predominantly white denominations. African American churches have served to provide African American people with leadership positions and opportunities to organize that were denied in mainstream American society. Because of this, African American pastors became the bridge between the African American and European American communities and thus played a crucial role in the American Civil Rights Movement. Like many Christians, African American Christians sometimes participate in or attend a Christmas play. Black Nativity by Langston Hughes is a re-telling of the classic Nativity story with gospel music. Productions can be found a African American theaters and churches all over the country. Islam [pic] A member of the Nation of Islam selling merchandise on a city street corner. Despite the popular assumption that the Nation represents all or most African American Muslims, less than 2% are members. Generations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade, Islam was a thriving religion in West Africa due to its peaceful introduction via the lucrative trans-Saharan trade between prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Berbers to the North. In his attesting to this fact the West African scholar Cheikh Anta Diop explained: â€Å"The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa†¦consequently stems from the fact that it was propagated peacefully at first by solitary Arabo-Berber travelers to certain Black kings and notables, who then spread it about them to those under their jurisdiction† Many first-generation slaves were often able to retain their Muslim identity, their descendants were not. Slaves were either forcibly converted to Christianity as was the case in the Catholic lands or were besieged with gross inconviences to their religious practice such as in the case of the Protestant American mainland. In the decades after slavery and particularly during the depression era, Islam reemerged in the form of highly visible and sometimes controversial heterodox movements in the African American community. The first of these of note was the Moorish Science Temple of America, founded by Noble Drew Ali. Ali had a profound influence on Wallace Fard, who later founded the Black nationalist Nation of Islam in 1930. Elijah Muhammad became head of the organization in 1934. Much like Malcolm X, who left the Nation of Islam in 1964, many African American Muslims now follow traditional Islam. A survey by the Council on American-Islamic Relations shows that 30% of Sunni Mosque attendees are African Americans. African American orthodox Muslims are often the victims of stereotypes, most notably the assumption that an African American Muslim is a member of the Nation of Islam. They are often viewed by the uneducated African-American community in general as less authentic than Muslims from the Middle East or South Asia while credibility is less of an issue with immigrant Muslims and Muslim world in general. Other religions. Aside from Christianity and Islam, there are also African Americans who follow Judaism, Buddhism, and a number of other religions. The Black Hebrew Israelites are a collection of African American Jewish religious organizations. Among their varied teachings, they often include that African Americans are descended from the Biblical Hebrews (sometimes with the paradoxical claim that the Jewish people are not). There is a small but growing number of African Americans who participate in African traditional religions, such as Vodou and Santeria or Ifa and diasporic traditions like Rastafarianism. Many of them are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean and South America, where these are practiced. Because of religious practices, such as animal sacrifice, which are no longer common among American religions and are often legally prohibited, these groups may be viewed negatively and are sometimes the victims of harassment. Life events For most African Americans, the observance of life events follows the pattern of mainstream American culture. There are some traditions which are unique to African Americans. Some African Americans have created new rites of passage that are linked to African traditions. Pre-teen and teenage boys and girls take classes to prepare them for adulthood. They are typically taught spirituality, responsibility, and leadership. Most of these programs are modeled after traditional African ceremonies, with the focus largely on embracing African ideologies rather than specific rituals. To this day, some African American couples choose to â€Å"jump the broom† as a part of their wedding ceremony. Although the practice, which can be traced back to Ghana, fell out of favor in the African American community after the end of slavery, it has experienced a slight resurgence in recent years as some couples seek to reaffirm their African heritage. Funeral traditions tend to vary based on a number of factors, including religion and location, but there are a number of commonalities. Probably the most important part of death and dying in the African American culture is the gathering of family and friends. Either in the last days before death or shortly after death, typically any friends and family members that can be reached are notified. This gathering helps to provide spiritual and emotional support, as well as assistance in making decisions and accomplishing everyday tasks. The spirituality of death is very important in African American culture. A member of the clergy or members of the religious community, or both, are typically present with the family through the entire process. Death is often viewed as transitory rather than final. Many services are called homegoings, instead of funerals, based on the belief that the person is going home to the afterlife. The entire end of life process is generally treated as a celebration of life rather than a mourning of loss. This is most notably demonstrated in the New Orleans Jazz Funeral tradition where upbeat music, dancing, and food encourage those gathered to be happy and celebrate the homegoing of a beloved friend. Cuisine [pic] A traditional soul food dinner consisting of fried chicken, candied yams, collard greens, cornbread, and macaroni and cheese. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, grits, watermelon, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to African influences. African American foods reflect creative responses to racial and economic oppression and poverty. Under slavery, African Americans were not allowed to eat better cuts of meat, and after emancipation many often were too poor to afford them. Soul food, a hearty cuisine commonly associated with African Americans in the South (but also common to African Americans nationwide), makes creative use of inexpensive products procured through farming and subsistence hunting and fishing.